[14], The first great uprising was the Russian-sponsored Orlov Revolt of the 1770s, which was crushed by the Ottomans after having limited success. Perspectives on Comparative Approaches to the Revolutions in Spain, Italy, and Greece in the 1820s.". In turn, the success of the Greek Revolution was to stimulate the incipient stirrings of Jewish nationalism, later called Zionism. However, the danger of war passed temporarily, after Metternich and Castlereagh persuaded the Sultan to make some concessions to the Tsar. [148], The First National Assembly was formed at Epidaurus in late December 1821, consisting almost exclusively of Peloponnesian notables. Byron, the most celebrated philhellene of all, lent his name, prestige and wealth to the cause. In Thessaloniki, governor Yusuf Bey (the son of Ismail Bey) imprisoned in his headquarters more than 400 hostages, of whom more than 100 were monks from the monastic estates. Omissions? Papaflessas and Makriyannis failed to suppress the rebellion, but Kolokotronis remained inactive for some period, overwhelmed by the death of his son, Panos. Alexander Ypsilantis, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant of his followers, retreated to Rmnicu Vlcea, where he spent some days negotiating with the Austrian authorities for permission to cross the frontier. [36], Crucial for the development of the Greek national idea were the Russo-Turkish Wars of the 18th century. Peter the Great had envisaged a disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the re-institution of a new Byzantine Empire with an Orthodox emperor. In Boeotia, Livadeia was captured by Athanasios Diakos on 31 March, followed by Thebes two days later. This was a very significant proportion of the total population of the island at the time. [103], Cretan participation in the revolution was extensive, but it failed to achieve liberation from Turkish rule because of Egyptian intervention. I could not deem myself a slave. The insurgents were besieged in Gramvousa for more than two years and they had to resort to piracy to survive. [g] Assemblies convened also in Central Greece (November 1821) under the leadership of two Phanariots: Alexandros Mavrokordatos in the western part, and Theodoros Negris in the eastern part. They were also joined by the Russian contingent led by Count Login Geiden. The central administration tried to marginalize Kolokotronis, who also had under his control the fort of Nafplion. Clogg asserts that uncertainty surrounds the total number of those recruited into the Filiki Eteria. [88], In Nafplio, a monument to honor the philhellenes who died fighting in the war listed 274 names, of which 100 are from Germany, forty each from France and Italy, and the rest from Britain, Spain, Hungary, Sweden, Portugal and Denmark. In June 1821 the insurgents tried to cut communications between Thrace and the south, attempting to prevent the serasker Haji Muhammad Bayram Pasha from transferring forces from Asia Minor to southern Greece. Sins, lies, and law evasion danced in the air. Media contact: Barbara Valenza, Director of Library Communications. "It is by the goodness of God that in our country we have those three unspeakably precious things: freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, and the prudence never to practice either of them . In the early months of 1821, with the absence of the Ottoman governor of the Morea (Mora valesi) Hursid Pasha and many of his troops, the situation was favourable for the Greeks to rise against Ottoman occupation. of Mons" from World War I, where abundant information enables us to sift truth from fiction precisely and set both in historical context. In the fire ships, the Greeks found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. His Pruth River Campaign of 1711 set a precedent for the Greeks, when Peter appealed to Orthodox Christians to join the Russians and rise against the Turks to fight for "faith and homeland". The legendary battle flag is currently stored at the National Historical Museum of Athens. The campaign ended after the Second Siege of Missolonghi in December 1823. Revolutionary activity was fragmented because of the lack of strong central leadership and guidance. pp. The party doesn't end. From a map published in Paris in 1826. Today are raised from the dead the fighters, political, religious, as well as military, for our King has come, that we begat with the power of God. [210] The Sublime Porte, which had rejected the call for an armistice in 1827, now rejected the conclusions of the Poros conference, with the Sultan Mahmud II saying he would never grant Greece independence, and the war would go on until he reconquered all of Greece. He believed that a furthering in education would be necessary for the general welfare and prosperity of the people of Greece, as well as the country. [116], It would take until the end of the century for the city's Greek community to recover. There are several important facts about the Greek War of Independence. These assemblies adopted two local statutes, the Charter of Western Continental Greece and the Legal Order of Eastern Continental Greece, drafted mainly by Mavrokordatos and Negris respectively. The Gulfs of Patras and Corinth, critical theaters of war. They would go out in parties of fifty to a hundred, mounted on fleet horses, and scour the open country in search of Greek peasantry, who might from necessity or hardihood have ventured down upon the plains. [65] In Moldavia, the struggle continued for a while, under Giorgakis Olympios and Yiannis Pharmakis, but by the end of the year the provinces had been pacified by the Ottomans. [b] Orthodox Christians were granted some political rights under Ottoman rule, but they were considered inferior subjects. Papageorgiou, Stephanos P. "The First Year of Freedom". [109], Towards the summer of 1825, a body of three to four hundred Cretans, who had fought with other Greeks in the Peloponnese, arrived in Crete and revitalized the Cretan insurgency (the so-called "Gramvousa period"). In February 1824, the loan for Greece was floated in the City, attracting some 472, 000 pounds sterling (~$17.4 million in 2021), which was money that the Greeks badly needed. [152], In March 1824, the forces of the new executive besieged Nafplion and Tripolitsa. [170] Russia warned that if the "barbarisation project" was a real plan, then such an egregious violation of the Treaty of Kk Kaynarca, under which Russia had a vague claim to be the protector of all the Orthodox peoples of the Ottoman Empire, would lead to Russia going to war against the Ottomans. For, standing on the Persians' grave, Byron's death strengthened European sympathy for the Greek cause. Zaimis and the other Peloponnesians who supported Kountouriotis came into conflict with the executive body, and allied with Kolokotronis, who roused the residents of Tripolitsa against the local tax collectors of the government. The proposed borderline ran from Arta to Volos, and, despite Kapodistrias' efforts, the new state would include only the islands of the Cyclades, the Sporades, Samos, and maybe Crete. This forced the Ottomans to accept Greek autonomy in the Treaty of Adrianople and autonomy for Serbia and the Romanian principalities. It is difficult sometimes to remember details about places and historic figures involved, especially when so many things took place during the decade long course of the Greek . As far as the Peloponnese was concerned, Britain and Russia accepted the offer of France to send an army to expel Ibrahim's forces. The statutes provided for the creation of two local administrative organs in Central Greece, an Areopagus in the east, and a Senate in the west. Kolokotronis accepted, but he caused a serious crisis when he prevented Mavrokordatos, who had been elected president of the legislative body, from assuming his position. In Bucharest, where he arrived in early April after some weeks delay, he decided that he could not rely on the Wallachian Pandurs to continue their Oltenian-based revolt and assist the Greek cause. The Greek War of Independence,[a] also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. Negotiations temporarily stalled after Kapodistrias was assassinated in 1831 in Nafplion by the Mavromichalis clan, after having demanded that they unconditionally submit to his authority. The Greek War of Independence, overall, was a bloody and difficult conflict for the people of Greece. [121] At the beginning of 1822, Anastasios Karatasos and Aggelis Gatsos arranged a meeting with other armatoloi; they decided that the insurrection should be based on three towns: Naoussa, Kastania, and Siatista. At a social event, King George IV was reported as referring to the battle as "this untoward event". Tuesday, February 28, 2023 View More Donald B. Redford puts the Biblical account of Israel's stay in and expulsion from Egypt in line . The war led to the formation of modern Greece, which would be expanded to include its modern borders in later years. From the Greek translation of Svoronos (Nicolas), Robert Zegger, "Greek Independence and the London Committee". The outbreak of the war was met by mass executions, pogrom-style attacks, the destruction of churches, and looting of Greek properties throughout the Empire. [73] In Achaia, the town of Kalavryta was besieged on 21 March, and in Patras conflicts lasted for many days. Document 2 quotes Aristotle, another philosopher. The Greek War of Independence spanned from 1821 until 1829, starting with Ypsilantis' invasion of the Danubian Principalities and ending with the signing of the Treaty of Adrianople, in which the Ottomans agreed to Greek autonomy. [25] As the armatoloi's position gradually turned into a hereditary one, some captains took care of their armatolik as their personal property. The battle-scarred hero of the Greek Revolution, Giannos "Astrapogiannos", returns home after the end of the blood-soaked War of Independence, only to find himself in a new conflict, as he locks horns with a ruthless local Kodjabashis. Whereas Cyrus was a supporter of Jewish independence, the Pharaoh of Exodus is an "Anti-Cyrus." . [132], From October 1820 to July 1823 the Ottomans were at war with Persia, and in March 1823 a huge fire at the Tophana military arsenal in Constantinople destroyed much of the Ottoman state's supplies of ammunition and its main cannon foundry. ai nante poi shite motto. Greeks controlled the affairs of the Orthodox Church through the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, as the higher clergy of the Orthodox Church was mostly of Greek origin. This was achieved through the dissemination of books, pamphlets and other writings in Greek, in a process that has been described as the modern Greek Enlightenment (Greek: ). However, the secret note on Crete, which the Bavarian plenipotentiary communicated to Britain, France and Russia, bore no fruit. The Maniots pursued the Egyptians all the way to Kalamata before returning to Vergas. [176] The news of Missolonghi's fall had a huge impact on the rest of Europe, sparking a vast outpouring of songs, poems, essays, sermons and plays in Britain, France, Germany and Switzerland, with the recurring image of Missolonghi's fall being the murder of a sweet and innocent young Greek woman at the hands of the Turks as a symbol of the unwillingness of the Christian powers of the world to do anything for the Greeks. . [203], Upon their arrival at Navarino, Codgrinton and de Rigny tried to negotiate with Ibrahim, but Ibrahim insisted that by the Sultan's order he must destroy Hydra. Karaiskakis served in the army of Ali Pasha in his war against the Ottomans (1820-22), but after his defeat and death, Karaiskakis fled to Vonitsa. The Turks attempted three times (182224) to invade the Peloponnese but were unable to retrieve the area. [124] Reprisals and executions ensued, and women are reported to have flung themselves over the Arapitsa waterfall to avoid dishonor and being sold in slavery. Let national phalanxes be formed, let patriotic legions appear and you will see those old giants of despotism fall themselves, before our triumphant banners. After the crushing of the uprising, Muslim Albanians ravaged many regions in mainland Greece. The entanglement of ethnic and linguistic communities, the protection of the Great Powers commercial interests and the political and sometimes armed conflicts between the Greeks themselves all contributed to the chaotic course of events and continued to plague attempts to form a national government well after the significant fighting had ceased. [84] When a local mullah was asked to give a fatwa justifying the murder of Christians by Muslims and refused, he too was promptly killed. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Afraid of the complications the partition of the empire might raise, the British foreign minister Viscount Castlereagh, Austrian foreign minister Prince Metternich, and the Tsar of Russia Alexander I shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the status quo and the peace of Europe. Makriyannis was wounded and was taken aboard by Europeans who were overseeing the battle. The Assembly drafted the first Greek Constitution and appointed the members of an executive and a legislative body that were to govern the liberated territories. Whereas previously only large nations (such as the Prussians or Austrians) had been judged worthy of national self-determination by the Great Powers, the Greek Revolt legitimized the concept of small nation-states, and emboldened nationalist movements among other subject peoples of the Ottoman Empire. His manner was agreeable and easy, with the polish of a great social experience, and the goodness of his disposition was admitted by his enemies, but the strength of his mind was not the quality of which his friends boastedBoth Church and the Greeks misunderstood one another. This war occurred roughly a week before the rest of Greece started a war on March 25, 1821. Map shows territorial shifts in Ukraine since war began one year ago. The aim of this fleet was to attack Hydra and knock the island's fleet out of the war. Our cowardly enemy is sick and weak. From the early stages of the revolution, success at sea was vital for the Greeks. [179], Ibrahim tried to enter Mani from the north-east near Almiro on 21 June 1826, but he was forced to stop at the fortifications at Vergas in northern Mani. Rothwell | 64 Despite nineteenth-century understandings of the Greek War of Independence, the ef - fect nationalism had in the war is now regularly debated. In Europe, the Greek revolt aroused widespread sympathy among the public, although at first it was met with lukewarm and negative reception from the Great Powers. Codrington promised that he would stop the Greeks and Philhellenes from attacking the Turks and Egyptians. [96] Jean-Pierre Boyer, President of Haiti, following a Greek request for assistance, addressed a letter on 15 January 1822. [69] However, a study on the archive of Hugues Pouqueville (Franois Pouqueville's brother) claims that Franois' account was accurate, without making any reference to the purported Anglophobia or Francophilia of Germanos. Corrections? In the letter sent to Greek expatriates living in France, Adamantios Korais, Christodoulos Klonaris, Konstantinos Polychroniades and A. Bogorides, who had assembled themselves into a Committee which was seeking international support for the ongoing Greek revolution, Boyer expressed his support for the Greek Revolution and compared the struggle underfoot across the Atlantic to the struggle for independence in his own land. Metternich persuaded Alexander that Kapodistrias was in league with the Italian Carbonari (an Italian revolutionary group), leading Alexander to disavow him. Greek War of Independence 1821-1832 The Greeks during this period lived under oppression by the Ottoman Empire (Turks).The Ottoman Empire had occupied Greece for four centuries. The Greeks managed to halt the Turkish advance at the Battle of Gravia under the leadership of Odysseas Androutsos, who, with a handful of men, inflicted heavy casualties upon the Turkish army. An operation which launched on 5 May 1827 ended in disaster, as the Greek forces got lost and scattered as the captains quarrelled with one another. [229] The country had been ravaged by ten years of fighting and was full of displaced refugees and empty Turkish estates, necessitating a series of land reforms over several decades. [132] The Albanian tribesmen, whose style of war was very similar to the Greeks, fought only for money and were liable to go home when not paid or able to plunder in lieu of pay. See also They also pleaded that they maintain the Concert of Europe. Kyprianos chose to stay, despite these fears, and provide protection and counsel for the people of Cyprus as their leader. JNS.org - Joe Woolf, a South African Jewish volunteer in the foreign-fighters unit Machal who conducted research that helped preserve that group's legacy for 75 years after Israel's War of Independence, died on Feb. 28 at his home in the northern Israeli moshav of Ilaniya. A tag already exists with the provided branch name. [146], The 1823 campaign in Western Greece was led by Northern Albanian forces under Mustafa Reshit Pasha from the Pashalik of Scutari, and Southern Albanian forces under Omer Vrioni from the former Pashalik of Yanina. [88] In France, Britain, Spain, Russia, the United States and many other places "Greek committees" were established to raise funds and supplies for the revolution. [83] In the city of Smyrna (modern zmir, Turkey), which until 1922 was a mostly Greek city, Ottoman soldiers drawn from the interior of Anatolia on their way to fight in either Greece or Moldavia/Wallachia, staged a pogrom in June 1821 against the Greeks, leading Gordon to write: "3,000 ruffians assailed the Greek quarter, plundered the houses and slaughtered the people; Smyrna resembled a place taken by assault, neither age or sex being respected". [184] Church landed in Greece in March 1827, and was welcomed by his old friend Kolokotronis. Central governance was strengthened at the expense of regional bodies, a new constitution was voted, and new members were elected for the executive and the legislative bodies. [113], Following the instructions of Alexander Ypsilantis, that is to prepare the ground and to rouse the inhabitants of Macedonia to rebellion, Pappas loaded arms and munitions from Constantinople on a ship on 23 March and proceeded to Mount Athos, considering that this would be the most suitable spring-board for starting the insurrection. Praised be your most virtuous name, omnipotent and most merciful Lord.". [46] In early 1820, Ioannis Kapodistrias, an official from the Ionian Islands who had become the joint foreign minister of Tsar Alexander I, was approached by the Society in order to be named leader but declined the offer; the Filikoi (members of Filiki Eteria) then turned to Alexander Ypsilantis, a Phanariote serving in the Russian army as general and adjutant to Alexander, who accepted. After Kapodistrias' assassination, the 1832 London Conference established the, Enlightenment and the Greek national movement, First administrative and political institutions, Revolutionary activity in Crete, Macedonia and Cyprus, Foreign intervention against the Ottomans, Music inspired by the Greek War of Independence, Adanir refers to the "mountainous districts such as. Votes: 6 Christopher Nolan Independence (740 quotes) [161] The two loans from the City caused significant financial difficulties for the young nation, and in 1878 a deal was struck between the creditors and the Greek government to reduce the loans, now worth 10million, with unpaid interest down to 1.5 million pounds sterling. [159] One of the British philhellenes, Frank Abney Hastings believed that the use of mechanised warships powered by steam and using red-hot shot would allow the Greeks to overpower the Ottoman navy, powered as it was by sail. Kolokotronis and most of the Peloponnesian notables and captains supported Mavromichalis, who remained president of his executive in Tripolitsa. [198], The Greeks formally applied for the mediation provided in the Petersburg Protocol, while the Turks and the Egyptians showed no willingness to stop fighting. His daughter, Galya Woolf, confirmed the . Deeply influenced by the French Revolution, Rigas was the first to conceive and organize a comprehensive national movement aiming at the liberation of all Balkan nationsincluding the Turks of the regionand the creation of a "Balkan Republic". [12] However, Greece was to remain under Ottoman rule for several more centuries. [90], In Germany, Italy and France many clergymen and university professors gave speeches saying all of Europe owed a huge debt to ancient Greece, that the modern Greeks were entitled to call upon the classical heritage as a reason for support, and that Greece would only achieve progress with freedom from the Ottoman Empire. [35] There they came into contact with the radical ideas of the European Enlightenment, the French Revolution and romantic nationalism. Codrington assembled his fleet once more, with the British returning from Malta and the French from the Aegean. The time has come, O Hellenes. Whether we prefer to call it a war, a revolution or an insurrection, or whether we consider its political context more regional than national, or its causes more economic than religious, the conflict remains a challenging and often bewildering object of historical study. Korais' ultimate goal was a democratic Greece much like the Golden Age of Pericles. However, the local pasha, Kk Pasha, intercepted these messages and reacted with fury, calling in reinforcements, confiscating weapons and arresting several prominent Cypriots. [182] In December, Febvier was able to infiltrate a force of some 500 men into the Akropolis, bringing in much needed supplies of gunpowder, through he was much offended when Makriyannis had his men start firing to wake up the Turks, trapping Fabvier and his men. He is best known for being decapitated and thereafter providing wisdom to the chief of the gods, Odin. However, the Greek side withstood the Turkish attacks because the Ottoman military campaigns were periodic and the Ottoman presence in the rebel areas was uncoordinated due to logistical problems. The plan originally involved uprisings in three places, the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople.[49]. [206], In Britain, the battle received a mixed reception. Beginning with the important Greek works of Ianns Philemon, Knstantinos Paparregopoulos and Spyridn Trikoupes, our collection extends through those written during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as well as those published during the Junta years of military dictatorship (1967-1974). By the end of 1821, the revolutionaries had managed to temporarily secure their positions in Central Greece. In 1823 civil war broke out between the guerrilla leader Thedoros Kolokotrnis and Gergios Kountouritis, who was head of the government that had been formed in January 1822 but that was forced to flee to the island of Hydra (dra) in December 1822. 5 October],[75] and the city was given over to the mob for two days. [d] From the early 18th century and onwards, members of prominent Greek families in Constantinople, known as Phanariotes (after the Phanar district of the city), gained considerable control over Ottoman foreign policy and eventually over the bureaucracy as a whole. Intervention in the Greek War of Independence 107 against taking up arms, and called instead for the regeneration of the Greeks through education.21 Moreover, the urge for Greek freedom was not sweeping, with the Orthodox Patriarchate, most Phanariots and many primates in the southern Balkans against it, given their privileges and affluence.22 History of the Greek Flag. war of independence waged by Greek revolutionaries. [196] The Anglo-Russian protocol that Wellington negotiated with Nicholas in St. Petersburg attracted much scorn from Metternich, who was consistently the most pro-Ottoman and anti-Greek European statesmen. Those not cut down or shot down during the "Greek hunts" were impaled afterwards when captured. [172], In the spring of 1826, Ibrahim managed to capture the marshes around the city, although not without heavy losses. After a tense week-long standoff, the Battle of Navarino led to the destruction of the OttomanEgyptian fleet and turned the tide in favor of the revolutionaries. Note: Hellenica features a sampling of the Hellenic Studies collections online. In addition, the Ottomans arrested all the Greek leaders of the villages and imprisoned them before executing them, as they were suspected of inspiring patriotism in their local population. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolts in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. Even though the rebels delayed him, they were ultimately defeated at the pass of Rentina. 28 March]. Kapodistrias demanded that Alexander declare war on the Ottomans in order to liberate Greece and increase the greatness of Russia. Meanwhile, Greek intellectuals and humanists, who had migrated west before or during the Ottoman invasions, such as Demetrios Chalkokondyles and Leonardos Philaras, began to call for the liberation of their homeland. Thus, as a result of the Ottoman millet system, the predominantly Greek hierarchy of the Patriarchate enjoyed control over the Empire's Orthodox subjects (the Rum milleti[9]). To this day, many songs are sung by Greeks worldwide on 25 March to celebrate their liberation and showcase their respect for the lives that were lost during the four hundred years of Ottoman rule. The city was saved by Makriyannis and Dimitrios Ypsilantis who successfully defended Miloi at the outskirts of Nafplion, making the mills outside the town a fortress causing damage to Ibrahim's far superior forces who were unable to take the position and eventually left for Tripolitsa. [151], The crisis culminated when the legislature, which was controlled by the Roumeliotes and the Hydriots, overturned the executive, and fired its president, Petros Mavromichalis. Re'y. After capturing some, they would give the poor creatures a certain distance to start ahead, hoping to escape, and then try the speed of their horses in overtaking them, the accuracy of their pistols in firing at them as they ran, or the keenness of their sabres' edge in cutting off their heads". By that time the desire for some form of independence was common among Greeks of all classes, whose Hellenism, or sense of Greek nationality, had long been fostered by the Greek Orthodox Church, by the survival of the Greek language, and by the administrative arrangements of the Ottoman Empire. He was publicly hanged from a tree opposite the former palace of the Lusignan Kings of Cyprus on 19 July 1821. [2] [28] Contrary to conventional Greek history, many of the klephts and armatoles participated at the Greek War of Independence according to their own militaristic patron-client terms. [163] The Greeks had not expected Ibrahim Pasha to land during the stormy winter weather, and were taken by surprise. A Greek passenger train collided head-on with a cargo train late on Tuesday, throwing entire carriages off the tracks and killing at least 36 people in the country's deadliest rail crash in living . Just click the "Edit page" button at the bottom of the page or learn more in the Quotes submission guide. Updates? [184] On 31 March 1827 the Trizina Assembly began its work, drafting a new constitution and offered the presidency of Greece to the former Russian foreign minister, Count Ioannis Kapodistrias. [117] The revolt, however, gained momentum in Mount Athos and Kassandra, and the island of Thasos joined it. The Allies did not lose a ship and suffered only 181 deaths. Maison thus implemented the convention Codrington had negotiated and signed in Alexandria with Muhammad Ali, which provided for the withdrawal of all Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese. The Orthodox Patriarch Gregory V was executed on 22 April 1821 on the orders of the Sultan despite his opposition to the revolt, which caused outrage throughout Europe and resulted in increased support for the Greek rebels. The intervention of Britain, Russia and France in the Greek War of Independence is regarded as the first armed intervention on humanitarian grounds. A prominent Greek patriot in the War of Greek Independence (1821-30). On 5 February 1827, a force of 2,300 Greeks under the command of Colonel Thomas Gordon landed at Piraeus, and laid siege to the monastery of Ayios Spiridhon, held by Turkish and Albanian troops. David Brewer has captured this period of world history brilliantly, from the ground up-the heroes and villains, the victories, and the tragic defeats. Subscribe to Princeton University Librarys e-newsletter for the latest updates on teaching and research support, collections, resources, and services. Finally, Tripolitsa was seized by the Greeks on 23 September [N.S. The Greek fleet was primarily outfitted by prosperous Aegean islanders, principally from the islands of Hydra and Spetses, as well as from Psara. The Ottomans launched sporadic attacks towards the city while the revolutionaries, led by Panagiotis Karatzas, drove them back to the fortress. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia allowing for the Russian army to move into the Balkans, near Constantinople. After nearly four hundred years of foreign rule, Greeks often used music and poetry as a means of empowerment in the war. The Russo-Turkish wars of Catherine II (1762-1796) made the Greeks consider their emancipation with the aid of Russia. Our morals are more depreciated than our currency.". The great figures of the War itself include the well-known combatants: Theodoros Kolokotrones, the brigand (klepht) hero of the Peloponnese, Georgios Karaiskakes and Odysseus Androutsos, commanders of forces in Roumeli (continental Greece), and Ioannes Makrygiannes, whose Memoirs of the War are considered among the classics of Modern Greek literature.
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